Understanding and mitigating risks to the food chain

1. EU harmonised survey of Listeria monocytogenes in a range of ready-to-eat foods (2014)

   To help inform strategies to reduce the incidence and severity of listeriosis, this survey was commissioned. The survey enabled the identification of ready to eat (RTE) food sources of human exposure to Listeria. RTE cheeses, fish, and meat products at the end of their shelf life were tested for Listeria species including L. monocytogenes. 

   • EU harmonised survey of Listeria monocytogenes in a range of ready- to-eat foods (February 2014)

2. A microbiological survey of campylobacter contamination (2014)

   This UK-wide survey was carried out to investigate the levels of Campylobacter in fresh whole retail chickens and their packaging. Samples were collected from retail outlets to determine if levels of contamination exceeded joint industry end-of-production target for reducing Campylobacter

   • A microbiological survey of campylobacter contamination in chicken on retail sale in the UK (November 2014)

3. UK-wide microbiological survey of pre-packed ready-to-eat sliced meats at retail sale in small-to-medium enterprises (2014)

   Poor microbiological quality of ready to eat foods presents a significant risk to the consumer. This survey of Listeria monocytogenes in a range of ready to eat (RTE) sliced meat products was carried out to determine the prevalence of L. monocytogenes contamination and identify associated risk factors in RTE sliced meats on sale in small and medium sized enterprises across the UK. 

   • UK-wide microbiological survey of pre-packed ready-to-eat sliced meats at retail sale in small-to-medium enterprises (December 2014)

4. A Microbiological Survey of Minced Beef at Retail in Scotland (2021)

   A survey of retail beef mince for Campylobacter, Salmonella and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli. was carried out, with the aim of determining the overall prevalence of these three pathogens, as well as the presence of two process hygiene indicators - aerobic colony count and generic E. coli. The levels of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) were investigated and factors associated with the likelihood of microbial contamination were explored. 

   • A Microbiological Survey of Minced Beef at Retail in Scotland (June 2021)

1. Food Hygiene Regulation in the Scottish Wild Game Sector 

   A review was carried out to examine the implementation and enforcement of food hygiene regulations in the Scottish wild game sector. The work involved examining the food supply chains for wild game and interviewing stakeholders involved in different aspects of the industry. 

   • Review of food hygiene regulatory regimes in the Scottish wild game sector (May 2014)

2. Microbiological risks from the production and consumption of uneviscerated small game birds compared to eviscerated small game birds: A qualitative risk assessment (2018)

   A risk assessment was carried out to assess the microbiological risks of six key pathogens from uneviscerated small game birds (i.e. where the internal organs are not removed before consumption), and eviscerated birds. The overall risks to the UK consumer from various pathogens/gamebird species were considered.

   • Microbiological risks from the production and consumption of uneviscerated small game birds compared to eviscerated small game birds: A qualitative risk assessment (September 2018)

3. Control of pathogens in cheeses made from unpasteurised milk (2018)

   We have provided evidence of the main pathogens of concern posing a risk to the safety of cheeses, supplying Scottish artisan cheesemakers and enforcement officials with critical advice on controlling microbiological hazards in artisan cheeses, particularly those produced from unpasteurised milk. 

   • Control of pathogens in cheeses made from unpasteurised milk (December 2018)

4. Foodborne pathogens on Scottish livestock farms: risks, attitudes, and potential interventions (2024)

   An evidence review of how foodborne pathogens enter the farm and are transmitted to livestock and then subsequently spread into the farm environment was conducted by the Moredun Research Institute. Potential interventions that may be applied to reduce the risks were identified as a result. A survey of livestock farmers was also conducted as part of the project to capture opinion and attitudes towards implementation of new farm practices. 

   • Foodborne pathogens on Scottish livestock farms: risks, attitudes, and potential interventions | Food Standards Scotland

Parasitic nematodes infecting fish and other marine animals are of interest due to the food safety risk they present to consumers. Studies have been carried out to determine the prevalence of these parasites in cultured and wild fish species

Anisakid nematodes, particularly Anisakis and Pseudoterranova species, pose a growing public health concern due to their potential to cause anisakiasis—a gastrointestinal and allergic condition in humans following the consumption of raw or undercooked infected fish. Over the past two decades, The Food Standards Scotland (FSAS) and then Food Standards Scotland (FSS) have commissioned a series of studies to assess the risk posed by these parasites in both wild and farmed fish, particularly Atlantic salmon, and to evaluate the effectiveness of detection and mitigation strategies. 

1. A Survey of Anisakis and Pseudoterranova in Scottish Fisheries (2010)

   This initial survey (carried out between July 2005 and June 2007) aimed to quantify the prevalence and intensity of Anisakis and Pseudoterranova infections in commercially important whitefish species (e.g., cod, monkfish, herring, mackerel) in Scottish waters. It also assessed the efficacy of various detection methods. Researchers used a combination of visual inspection, enzymatic digestion, and UV illumination to detect larvae in fish musculature. The study highlighted significant infection rates in some species and raised concerns about the adequacy of existing detection protocols.

   • A Survey of Anisakis and Pseudoterranova in Scottish fisheries and the efficacy of current detection methods (July 2010)

2. Nematodes in Scottish Wild Atlantic Salmon (2010)

   Building on earlier findings, this study focused specifically on wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), aiming to determine the species of anisakid nematodes present and their prevalence in salmon muscle tissue. The research employed molecular techniques to distinguish between morphologically similar nematode species. The study confirmed that wild salmon are indeed hosts to Anisakis and Pseudoterranova, with implications for food safety and allergenicity, especially given the popularity of raw salmon products.

   • Nematodes in Scottish wild fish (February 2010)

3. A Survey of Anisakid Nematodes in Scottish Wild and Farmed Salmon (2011)

   This follow-up study expanded the scope to compare wild and farmed salmon. It aimed to determine whether farmed salmon, which are fed controlled pelleted diets, were free from anisakid infections. The study confirmed that farmed salmon showed no evidence of infection, supporting the hypothesis that controlled aquaculture practices mitigate the risk. In contrast, wild salmon continued to show high infection rates. The findings provided important epidemiological evidence supporting the safety of farmed salmon in relation to anisakid parasites.

   • A Survey of Anisakid Nematodes in Salmon (August 2011)

4. A survey of parasitic nematodes in maricultured finfish in Scotland - except salmon (2014)

   This report extended the investigation to other maricultured species such as Atlantic halibut, rainbow trout, and sea trout. It assessed farming practices and the risk of anisakid infection. The study found that the risk in these species is extremely low due to the use of processed feed and controlled rearing environments. However, 75% of wild halibuts were found to contain the parasites. It also reinforced the regulatory position that farmed fish, when properly managed, do not require freezing before raw consumption under EU food safety law 

   • A survey of parasitic nematodes in maricultured finfish in Scotland - except salmon (May 2014) 

Chemical contaminants in foods are a key priority for FSS. We work with researchers and other government agencies to assess the potential food safety risks arising from chemical substances and take appropriate action to protect the health of consumers in Scotland. Among other things, our work on chemical hazards focuses on, toxins, environmental and process contaminants, pesticides, radiological contaminants and novel foods.

1. Purchase and Consumption of Non-Dairy Alternative Products and Oat-Based Products

   We have recently carried out a study to assess the purchase and dietary intake of non-dairy alternatives across Scotland. The study was carried out in response to a growing demand for and the availability of non-dairy products. The findings were expected to provide a basis for further investigations into the risk of chemical substances that may be present in these products.

   • Purchase and Consumption of Non-Dairy Alternative Products and Oat-Based Products (June 2021)

2. Oat-Based Commodity and Non-Dairy Alternative Drinks Chemical Contaminants Survey

   We carried out a survey to test oat-based cereal, snack and non-dairy alternative products including oat, almond, coconut and soya drinks,for mycotoxins, isoflavone content of a range of soya drinks and infant formula and 3-MCPD and glycidyl esters in coconut non-dairy alternative drinks. Forty one products were purchased from a range of retail and online sellers from Scotland. This study demonstrated the potential for the co-occurrence of mycotoxins in oat products and non-dairy alternative drinks including modified forms of mycotoxins and these data will be used to inform future sampling to target contaminants in particular commodities in future surveys.

   • Oat-Based Commodity and Non-Dairy Alternative Drinks Chemical Contaminants Survey. (October 2022)

3. Review of Priority Chemical Contaminant Risks, Food Production and Consumer Diets in Scotland

   A study to review the scientific and grey literature to assess key chemical contaminants risks with regards to the Scottish food chain has been carried out. The study focussed on contaminants in foods most commonly consumed by the Scottish population, in addition to those that may be of particular relevance to economically important food industries in Scotland, such as those related to fish production, Scotch whisky and certain cereal crops. The report outlined recommendations on future work needed to address the evidence gaps identified.

   • Review of Priority Chemical Contaminant Risks, Food Production and Consumer Diets in Scotland (November 2018)

4. Review of the risk management practices employed throughout the fish processing chain in relation to controlling histamine formation in at-risk fish species in Scotland

   A comprehensive review of the current risk management practices for controlling histamine in at-risk fish species throughout the Scottish fish processing chain was carried out. The review identified key risk areas in the whole chain (from-catch-to-fork) and any gaps in the management of these issues.

   • Review of the risk management practices employed throughout the fish processing chain in relation to controlling histamine formation in at-risk fish species in Scotland (May 2014)​ 

5. Habits and behaviours of high-level consumers of lead-shot wild-game meat in Scotland

   FSS commissioned a research project on the habits and behaviours of high-level consumers of lead-shot wild-game meat in Scotland, This was carried out in response to the lack of data on game consumption to support risk assessment of lead exposure. The finding were intended to inform risk assessment and management measures. 

   • Habits and behaviours of high-level consumers of lead-shot wild-game meat in Scotland - Final Report and risk assessment (February 2012)

6. Evaluation of the progress made by Scottish SMEs with the voluntary withdrawal of the ‘Southampton Six’ Colours from food products

   In response to scientific evidence that the presence of certain food additives caused hyperactivity in children and the request to manufacturers to voluntarily remove these colours from their products, FSS commissioned research into the progress made by small to medium sized food enterprises (SMEs) in Scotland in achieving the voluntary withdrawal. The substances which are artificial colours known as the Southamptom six included Sunset yellow (E110), Quinoline yellow (E104), Carmoisine (E122), Allura red (E129), Tartrazine (E102) and Ponceau 4R (E124).

   • Evaluation of the progress made by Scottish SMEs with the voluntary withdrawal of the ‘Southampton Six’ Colours from food products (September 2012)

7. Geographical Investigation for chemical contaminants in fish collected from UK and proximate marine waters

   FSAS funded research carried out by the Food and Environment Research Agency (FERA) to investigate the occurrence of a range of regulated and emerging organic environmental contaminants in commonly consumed marine fish species. The study focused on fish species  that are considered to be at the highest risk of non-compliance with existing regulatory limits for contaminants such as dioxins and polycyclic biphenyls. The study provides data on current levels of occurrence and geographical locations with higher contaminant levels, facilitating the estimation of human exposure as a result of consumption.

   • Geographical Investigation for chemical contaminants in fish collected from UK and proximate marine waters (March 2015) 

8. Environmental contaminants in fish from unmanaged inland UK waterways

   This study examines the changing habits of anglers and consumers with regards to freshwater fish species. It characterises a range of existing and emerging contaminants in these species with a view to determining current levels of occurrence and to allow estimation of consumer exposure.

   • Environmental contaminants in fish from unmanaged inland UK waterways (March 2010)

9. Chemical contaminants in fish and fishery products 

   FSS and FSA co-funded a literature review of the current data for chemical contaminants in wild-caught fish species throughout Scottish and the wider UK. The review identified current known levels of chemical contamination in wild-caught marine fish species as well as gaps in these data for informing future monitoring.

   FSS commissioned a literature review to look at chemical contaminants in wild-caught fish in Scotland and the UK. The report for this will be due in June 2025.

10. A survey of mycotoxins and alkaloids in plant-based protein products

    FSS funded a survey of mycotoxins and alkaloids in plant-based protein products such as pea, wheat and soy-based meat-alternative foods, protein powders, drinks and snacks. 

    FSS commissioned a project to look at mycotoxins and alkaloids in plant-based protein products. The report for this will be due early 2026.

FSS commissions research to develop new methods of ensuring food is authentic, working closely with related government agencies including the FSA and Defra. FSS are key stakeholders of the virtual Food Authenticity Network and participates in knowledge transfer initiatives to ensure Scotland, and the UK, have access to a resilient network of laboratories providing fit for purpose testing to ensure food authenticity so consumers can have confidence in the food they buy.

Food authenticity is a measure of the quality of food. Our work into ensuring the authenticity of food produce enables us to prevent, detect and investigate food fraud and crime such as product mislabelling, adulteration and substitution. 

1. Beef Origin Project II – Improvement of the British Beef Isotope Landscape Map (Isoscape) for Scotland and Northern Ireland

   The beef origin project was carried out to map the origin of beef labelled as Scotch beef, and to assist in the enforcement of the various beef protected food names, detection of mislabelling fraud and protection of the interests of the consumer and honest trader

   • Beef Origin Project II – Improvement of the British Beef Isotope Landscape Map (Isoscape) for Scotland and Northern Ireland (October 2016)

2. Fish Authenticity Report

   The fish authenticity survey was commissioned to assess the potential for fraudulent labelling of fish products supplied to Public Sector organisations in Scotland. The survey was initiated in 2014 following concerns relating to the authenticity and mislabelling of fish products sold in Scotland.

   • Fish Authenticity Report (January 2016)

1. Radioactivity in food and the environment

   FSS collaborates with UK environmental agencies and FSA to monitor radioactivity in food and the environment (RIFE) on an annual basis. Annual RIFE reports are produced detailing findings from the analyses of food and sources of public drinking water that are consumed across the UK.

   • Radioactivity in Food and the Environment (RIFE-30) 2024
   • Radioactivity in Food and the Environment (RIFE-29) 2023
   • Radioactivity in Food and the Environment (RIFE 28) 2022
   • Radioactivity in Food and the Environment (RIFE-27) 2021
   • Radioactivity in Food and the Environment (RIFE-26) 2020
   • Radioactivity in Food and the Environment (RIFE-25) 2019
   • Radioactivity in Food and the Environment (RIFE-24) 2018
   • Radioactivity in Food and the Environment (RIFE-23) 2017
   • Radioactivity in Food & the Environment (RIFE-22) 2016 
   • ​Radioactivity in Food & the Environment (RIFE-21) 2015
   • ​Transfer of Radioactivity from Seaweed to Terrestrial Foods