FSS is the competent authority in Scotland required by legislation to implement programmes for monitoring the safety of shellfish (i.e. live bivalve molluscs) from classified harvesting waters. We fund research on marine microbiological and chemical contaminants including biotoxins to support the monitoring program. More details of our research work are outlined below:
Risk assessments of biotoxins and contaminants in shellfish
As part of our activities to support the shellfish monitoring programme, we commission risk assessment of marine biotoxins and contaminants.
A study to examine the statistical model used to inform risk assessment of the Scottish monitoring programme for marine biotoxins in shellfish from classified production areas was carried out. The study also considered alternative statistical models using a larger dataset collected over 15 years and took into account the actual date of sample collection as opposed to aggregating data by month. The study assessed the possibility of refining the model to allow for smooth progression of estimated biotoxin prevalence over time.
- Biotoxin risk assessment report
- Exploring improvements to models used in risk assessment of the Scottish monitoring programme for marine biotoxins in shellfish harvested from classified production areas (June 2018)
The Scottish monitoring programme for marine biotoxin was assessed to determine whether the current monitoring frequencies were sufficient. In this study, the risk of non-detection of a toxic event with PSP, ASP and DSP were assessed and the study provided data on the estimated prevalence of toxins responsible for shellfish poisoning a variety of species harvested from classified production areas.
- Risk assessment of the Scottish monitoring programme for the marine biotoxins in shellfish harvested from classified production areas (September 2016)
Previous studies to risk assess the shellfish monitoring program have also been reported. One of the studies analysed monitoring data to determine toxin concentrations of ASP, DSP and PSP in mussels, pacific oysters, king scallops, queen scallops, and cockles collected between April 2004 and November 2006. It also assessed the risk of a toxic event going undetected and follows up from a similar study on shellfish samples collected between April 2001 to March 2004.
- Risk assessment of the FSAS inshore shellfish monitoring programme based on historical toxin data from 2004-2006 (March 2008)
- Risk Assessment of Inshores/fish sites- (September 2004)
A risk assessment for practical changes in the Scottish offshore scallop monitoring programme for domoic acid was carried out in response to domoic acid concentrations in scallops from Scotland showing a year on year increase.
- ASP Risk Assessment Integrin (September 2004)
Method development to support shellfish monitoring
FSS supports research into developing better methods for detecting and monitoring food hazards. We have funded extensive research into improving the detection of marine biotoxins in shellfish.
Our review of commercially available field testing methods for shellfish end product testing concluded that in general, commercially available field methods can detect ASP, DSP, and PSP toxins at concentrations well below the regulatory limits.
Review of the currently available field methods for detection of marine biotoxins in shellfish flesh (October 2015)
Critical review of the current evidence for the use indicator shellfish species for purposes of biotoxin and chemical monitoring in shellfish production areas
We undertook a critical review of the available evidence base on the feasibility of using a shellfish indicator species for contaminants and biotoxin monitoring in Scotland. The findings suggested that mussels are good candidates for use as indicator species for biotoxin monitoring (with some exceptions which are detailed in the report). However, there was limited evidence to support the use of an indicator species for monitoring chemical contaminants.
Critical review of the current evidence for the use indicator shellfish species for purposes of biotoxin and chemical monitoring in shellfish production areas (November 2014)
Study to investigate the effect of General Anaesthesia on the Paralytic Shellfish Poisioning (PSP) Bioassay
A study was conducted to test a modification to the standard mouse bioassay used to detect PSP. There are ethical issues associated with the mouse bioassay with regards to animal welfare. The study aimed to refine the method to minimise animal suffering by anaesthetising test animals prior to being injected with toxic sample.
Study to investigate the effect of General Anaesthesia on the Paralytic Shellfish Poisioning (PSP) Bioassay (March 2014)
Research to support the development of a monitoring programme for new or emerging marine biotoxins in shellfish in UK waters
We constantly monitor for emerging food safety issues. This study critically reviewed and assessed current available evidence, both on emerging shellfish biotoxins and testing regimes in different countries worldwide to support the development of a monitoring programme for emerging marine biotoxins in shellfish in UK waters. The review provided a comprehensive risk assessment on new emerging toxins reported worldwide and identified and prioritised the potential risks for the UK.
Research to support the development of a monitoring programme for new or emerging marine biotoxins in shellfish in UK waters (March 2014)
Development and assessment of specific probes for the detection and monitoring of toxin-producing phytoplankton species in Scottish waters
Toxin-producing phytoplankton species presents a risk to the safety of shellfish in Scottish waters. This project was carried out with a aim to develop molecular-based techniques for the identification toxin-producing phytoplankton species such as Alexandrium tamarense, Azadinium spinosum and other Azadinium species in Scottish waters.
Development and assessment of specific probes for the detection and monitoring of toxin-producing phytoplankton species in Scottish waters (September 2013)
Microbiological hazards in shellfish
SARF 013 - Risk factors in shellfish harvesting areas
Bacterial and viral pathogens in shellfish could pose significant health problems to consumers. Because shellfish species are filter feeders, microorganisms may accumulate at higher levels. This study was carried out to identify key pollution sources and conditions contributing to viral and bacterial contamination of cultured shellfish. The project consisted of three key elements – a sanitary survey; 12 month monitoring programme; and a source apportionment study of faecal indicator bacteria.
SARF 013 - Risk factors in shellfish harvesting areas (October 2010)
Marine contaminants and biotoxins
Investigation into the levels of environmental contaminants in Scottish marine and freshwater fin-fish and shellfish
We have funded research to monitor the presence and levels of contaminants and biotoxins that may accumulate in shellfish and marine environments. An investigation into the levels of environmental contaminants like heavy metals, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs) and phthalates in fish and shellfish provided the bases for the estimation of dietary exposure to these hazards. The study also provides information on emerging contaminants to inform our monitoring programme.
Investigation into the levels of environmental contaminants in Scottish marine and freshwater fin-fish and shellfish (October 2010)
Treatment and processing options to reduce toxins
Studies have been carried out with the aim of developing processing techniques for removing paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins from naturally contaminated scallops. The effect of washing the edible parts of king scallops to reduce the levels of PSP toxin was assessed in this study.
The impact of washing the edible parts (adductor and gonad) on paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxin concentrations in the King scallop Pecten maximus (February 2010)
Distribution of DSP toxins in King Scallops (Pectin maximus) and the effects of current shucking practises on toxin concentrations in edible tissues
This study filled an important evidence gap regarding the effectiveness of shucking practises in reducing the levels of diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxin in king scallops.
Distribution of DSP toxins in King Scallops (Pectin maximus) and the effects of current shucking practises on toxin concentrations in edible tissues (February 2010)
Collection and analysis of shellfish flesh from Scottish inshore and offshore harvesting areas for chemical contaminants - FRS project (PAHs, CBs, OCPs and TMs)
A further study investigating the levels of benzopyrene (BP), PAHs, lead, cadmium and mercury, chlorobiphenyls and organochlorine pesticides, concluded that the concentrations of these substances in the samples analysed do not raise health concerns in respect to consumption by the general public.
Collection and analysis of shellfish flesh from Scottish inshore and offshore harvesting areas for chemical contaminants - FRS project (PAHs, CBs, OCPs and TMs (September 2006)
Pilot study on the incidence of algal toxins (ASP, DSP and PSP toxins) in Scottish Brown Crab (Cancer pagurus)
The incidence and uptake of toxins by crabs was assessed through a pilot study which also mapped areas where crabs are sourced. The findings of the study suggested that Scottish Brown crabs could potentially be a vector for amnestic shellfish poisoning (ASP), diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP), and paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), when conditions are suitable. The report provided suggestions to prevent contaminated crabs from being placed on the market.
Pilot study on the incidence of algal toxins (ASP, DSP and PSP toxins) in Scottish Brown Crab (Cancer pagurus) (April 2006)
LC-MS profiling of DSP toxins in shellfish samples from the 2006 Scottish DSP monitoring programme
This research project aimed to determine the concentrations and toxin composition of DSP toxins in selected mussel samples at three shellfish production sites (Drovinish in Loch Roag, and Clift Sound and Ronas Voe in Shetland), toxin concentrations were examined over a 6-month period to identify possible temporal trends over discrete sampling periods.
LC-MS profiling of DSP toxins in shellfish samples from the 2006 Scottish DSP monitoring programme (December 2006)
Monitoring Programme for Algal Toxins in Shellfish from Scotland (March 2005)
Findings were reported from the monitoring programme for algae toxins in shellfish in the period 2001 to 2002. The programme identified production areas where detected PSP, ASP and DSP toxins were above the permitted level and lead to restrictions being imposed on harvesting areas.
Monitoring Programme for Algal Toxins in Shellfish from Scotland (March 2005)
Measurement of Trace Metals in Crustacea and Bivalve Molluscs in Support of the MV Jambo Environmental Monitoring Programme
Following the grounding of the cargo vessel, MV Jambo in 2003, on the west coast of Scotland, a monitoring programme was set up to ensure that concentrations of heavy metals resulting from the grounding does not affect the safety of seafood products available for human consumption. The concentrations of zinc, cadmium, lead and arsenic in scallops and edible crabs were determined.
Measurement of Trace Metals in Crustacea and Bivalve Molluscs in Support of the MV Jambo Environmental Monitoring Programme (October 2004)
Continued Monitoring of PAH in Loch Leven
FSS commissioned research to investigate the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in farmed mussels in Loch Leven. In September 1999, elevated concentrations of PAH in mussels from Loch Leven led the shellfish producers, based on the precautionary principle, to implement a voluntary prohibition on harvesting mussels for human consumption at both the Ballachulish and Kinlochleven shellfish farm sites in Loch Leven. Monitoring of shellfish from these farms for PAHs were carried with reference to shellfish from other farms.
Continued Monitoring of PAH in Loch Leven (March 2004)
Measurement of Chemical Contaminants in Shellfish from Scottish Waters
A study to monitor chemical contaminants in three shellfish species- mussels, scallops and oysters- from sites around Scotland was carried out. The concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), trace metals (TM), chlorobiphenyl (CB) and organochlorine pesticide (OCP) were determined in the soft tissues these three species across two sampling periods (March and April 2002 and during August and September 2002).
Measurement of Chemical Contaminants in Shellfish from Scottish Waters (January 2003)
Measurement of ASP in King Scallops Processed in Scotland
Domoic acid which causes amnestic shellfish poisoning (ASP) can accumulate at harmful levels in shellfish. This study was carried out to quantify levels of domoic acid in king scallops, determine natural variation of the toxin and assess processing practices including HACCP in order to inform recommendations for Scottish Scallop processors. The study helped to determine the appropriate levels of end product testing for king scallops in Scotland within a tiered testing regime.
Measurement of ASP in King Scallops Processed in Scotland (April 2002)