We use science and research to support our own role in regulating the meat, shellfish and animal feed sectors in Scotland.
We also commission projects which help us to understand the attitudes, behaviours and experiences of food business operators (FBOs), consumers, and enforcement authorities. This enables us to spot the issues that matter most to consumers, where action is needed to lower risks to our food chain, and how to support businesses in dealing with them.
Evidence-based regulation relies on an understanding of the attitudes, behaviours and experiences of food business operators, local authorities and consumers. To support our activities, we have funded a number of research projects in this area:
Food Standards Scotland (FSS) commissioned IFF Research to conduct an evaluation of the Food Law Rating System (FLRS). The FLRS was introduced in Scotland as part of the Interventions Food Law Code of Practice (Scotland) 2019. The FLRS combines the rating systems for food hygiene and food standards by which food businesses and food producers are assessed into one regime based upon a new Food Business Performance Model.
This evaluation set out to understand if the FLRS has achieved what it was designed to deliver and to uncover lessons learned, with a view to informing future development of the food law enforcement delivery model. Qualitative interviews took place with authorised food officers in all 32 Scottish local authorities and 8 stakeholders (including current and former FSS staff as well as representatives of industry and professional bodies). Interviews took place between February and April 2024 and examined:
Evaluation of the Food Law Rating System (October 2024)
This research focuses on legislation that requires foods that are pre-packed for direct sale (PPDS) to clearly display the name of the food and a full ingredients list with the 14 regulated allergens emphasised within the list. The legislation was implemented in October 2021. FSS commissioned JRS to carry out qualitative research with consumers with food allergies and intolerances and parents of children with food allergies and intolerances. The research explores:
This research is linked to a joint project conducted by FSS and FSA which evaluated the same legislation from the experience of local authorities and food business operators across the UK. This included consumers in England, Wales and Northern Ireland.
Pre-packed for direct sale (PPDS) consumer research (August 2023)
As the public sector body responsible for ensuring food safety in Scotland, Food Standards Scotland’s (FSS) role includes the provision of independent advice on all areas of food safety, standards, labelling and nutrition.
In 2025, FSS commissioned The Lines Between (TLB) to conduct research into the awareness of, relevance and effectiveness of FSS guidance. Key research requirements were to evidence how guidance is used by food businesses and food law professionals, gaps in guidance and suggestions for further guidance, and food businesses and food law professionals' preferences for accessing guidance and any barriers to uptake.
Primary data collection consisted of a mixed-methods approach, using qualitative and quantitative research. The focus of the research was to understand the experiences of food businesses, however the research also included a small number of qualitative interviews with local authority food law professionals and other stakeholders and an online survey with food law professionals to ensure their views were also included.
Research into the use and perceptions of guidance on food safety and standards
To enable risk assessment and management in relation to food safety, an understanding of consumer knowledge, behaviours, preferences and attitudes are essential. We fund a broad range of consumer research to support our activities.
This report presents the key findings from the Food and You 2 Wave 8 survey carried out in Scotland. The Food Standards Agency (FSA) has been running the survey in England, Wales and Northern Ireland since 2020. In Wave 8, Food Standards Scotland (FSS) collaborated with the FSA to enable, for the first time, a sample of consumers in Scotland to be included in the survey. Food and You 2 measures consumers’ self-reported knowledge, attitudes and behaviours related to food safety and other food issues amongst adults across the UK. Fieldwork for Food and You 2 Wave 8 was conducted between 12 October 2023 and 8 January 2024. A total of 1,377 adults (aged 16 years or over) from 954 households across Scotland completed the survey.
This report focuses on eating at home and food safety practices, eating out and ordering takeaways, concerns about food, food allergies and intolerances, sustainable diets and meat alternatives and genetic technologies.
Food and You 2 Survey: Scotland (Wave 8) Key Findings (February 2025)
Despite general concerns about the increase in online food selling, and the unknowns around the safety of food sold this way, we identified that little research had been published on this issue. In 2024 Food Standards Scotland funded a study to provide an overview of ready-to-eat food products offered for sale on Facebook Marketplace in Scotland.
There are two outputs from the project the report from the contractor which details the data collection approach and findings and a response from FSS to consider the food safety implications of the findings reported by the contractor.
Review of ready-to-eat food products sold over social media in Scotland (December 2024)
This joint research with FSA focuses on legislation that requires foods that are pre-packed for direct sale (PPDS) to clearly display the name of the food and a full ingredients list with the 14 regulated allergens emphasised within the list. The legislation was implemented in October 2021. In Scotland, the research aimed to understand:
IFF Research were commissioned to conduct this evaluation on behalf of the FSA and FSS, taking a mixed-method approach:
Executive Summary - PPDS evaluation | Food Standards Agencyy (July 2023)
This qualitative and quantitative research explored UK consumer views and priorities in relation to FSS and FSA’s responsibilities around food hygiene and safety, but also around wider interests the public see critical in shaping their food choices and lives including:
The research was carried out by Bright Harbour in partnership with Esposito Research and Strategy and AndGood and published in May 2022.
UK Public’s Interests, Needs and Concerns Around Food | Food Standards Agency (May 2022)
This report presents key findings from a comprehensive review of public interests in food carried out in Scotland. The research is part of a larger piece of work covering the whole of the UK, commissioned by the Food Standards Agency (FSA) and Food Standards Scotland (FSS). It aimed to provide a detailed ‘snapshot’ of people’s interests, needs and concerns around food and is published separately by FSA.
The research covers the key food interests the public would like to see represented and protected on their behalf - particularly in relation to food hygiene and safety, and diet and nutrition, but also more widely. The majority of the findings emerging from Scotland are broadly similar to those across the rest of the UK.
Interests, needs and concerns around food: the public’s view in Scotland (June 2022)
We funded a study to understand public preferences for food safety information from FSS. An online survey was used to collect consumer opinions from a representative sample of 2,300 persons in Scotland. Top consumer preferences included information on how to store food safely, how to handle food safely, how to cook safely, types of food risks, and general food safety information
A study was carried out to ascertain knowledge, perception of risk and level of concern about issues related to food safety (such as, unpasteurised dairy products and rare burgers). This enabled FSS identify if consumers views of a food risk tallies with known risks.
Consumer forums: Perceptions of food safety risks (April 2019)
This study was carried out to explore the impact of increased consumer awareness in mitigating the risk of Campylobacter infection. Potential interventions for reducing Campylobacter in poultry were discussed and the acceptability and desirability of these interventions to consumers
Citizen Forums: Campylobacter intervention perceptions (September 2010)
FSS is the competent authority in Scotland required by legislation to implement programmes for monitoring the safety of shellfish (i.e. live bivalve molluscs) from classified harvesting waters. We fund research on marine microbiological and chemical contaminants including biotoxins to support the monitoring program. More details of our research work are outlined below:
As part of our activities to support the shellfish monitoring programme, we commission risk assessment of marine biotoxins and contaminants.
A study to examine the statistical model used to inform risk assessment of the Scottish monitoring programme for marine biotoxins in shellfish from classified production areas was carried out. The study also considered alternative statistical models using a larger dataset collected over 15 years and took into account the actual date of sample collection as opposed to aggregating data by month. The study assessed the possibility of refining the model to allow for smooth progression of estimated biotoxin prevalence over time.
The Scottish monitoring programme for marine biotoxin was assessed to determine whether the current monitoring frequencies were sufficient. In this study, the risk of non-detection of a toxic event with PSP, ASP and DSP were assessed and the study provided data on the estimated prevalence of toxins responsible for shellfish poisoning a variety of species harvested from classified production areas.
Previous studies to risk assess the shellfish monitoring program have also been reported. One of the studies analysed monitoring data to determine toxin concentrations of ASP, DSP and PSP in mussels, pacific oysters, king scallops, queen scallops, and cockles collected between April 2004 and November 2006. It also assessed the risk of a toxic event going undetected and follows up from a similar study on shellfish samples collected between April 2001 to March 2004.
A risk assessment for practical changes in the Scottish offshore scallop monitoring programme for domoic acid was carried out in response to domoic acid concentrations in scallops from Scotland showing a year on year increase.
FSS supports research into developing better methods for detecting and monitoring food hazards. We have funded extensive research into improving the detection of marine biotoxins in shellfish.
Our review of commercially available field testing methods for shellfish end product testing concluded that in general, commercially available field methods can detect ASP, DSP, and PSP toxins at concentrations well below the regulatory limits.
We undertook a critical review of the available evidence base on the feasibility of using a shellfish indicator species for contaminants and biotoxin monitoring in Scotland. The findings suggested that mussels are good candidates for use as indicator species for biotoxin monitoring (with some exceptions which are detailed in the report). However, there was limited evidence to support the use of an indicator species for monitoring chemical contaminants.
A study was conducted to test a modification to the standard mouse bioassay used to detect PSP. There are ethical issues associated with the mouse bioassay with regards to animal welfare. The study aimed to refine the method to minimise animal suffering by anaesthetising test animals prior to being injected with toxic sample.
We constantly monitor for emerging food safety issues. This study critically reviewed and assessed current available evidence, both on emerging shellfish biotoxins and testing regimes in different countries worldwide to support the development of a monitoring programme for emerging marine biotoxins in shellfish in UK waters. The review provided a comprehensive risk assessment on new emerging toxins reported worldwide and identified and prioritised the potential risks for the UK.
Toxin-producing phytoplankton species presents a risk to the safety of shellfish in Scottish waters. This project was carried out with a aim to develop molecular-based techniques for the identification toxin-producing phytoplankton species such as Alexandrium tamarense, Azadinium spinosum and other Azadinium species in Scottish waters.
Bacterial and viral pathogens in shellfish could pose significant health problems to consumers. Because shellfish species are filter feeders, microorganisms may accumulate at higher levels. This study was carried out to identify key pollution sources and conditions contributing to viral and bacterial contamination of cultured shellfish. The project consisted of three key elements – a sanitary survey; 12 month monitoring programme; and a source apportionment study of faecal indicator bacteria.
SARF 013 - Risk factors in shellfish harvesting areas (October 2010)
We have funded research to monitor the presence and levels of contaminants and biotoxins that may accumulate in shellfish and marine environments. An investigation into the levels of environmental contaminants like heavy metals, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs) and phthalates in fish and shellfish provided the bases for the estimation of dietary exposure to these hazards. The study also provides information on emerging contaminants to inform our monitoring programme.
Studies have been carried out with the aim of developing processing techniques for removing paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins from naturally contaminated scallops. The effect of washing the edible parts of king scallops to reduce the levels of PSP toxin was assessed in this study.
This study filled an important evidence gap regarding the effectiveness of shucking practises in reducing the levels of diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxin in king scallops.
A further study investigating the levels of benzopyrene (BP), PAHs, lead, cadmium and mercury, chlorobiphenyls and organochlorine pesticides, concluded that the concentrations of these substances in the samples analysed do not raise health concerns in respect to consumption by the general public.
The incidence and uptake of toxins by crabs was assessed through a pilot study which also mapped areas where crabs are sourced. The findings of the study suggested that Scottish Brown crabs could potentially be a vector for amnestic shellfish poisoning (ASP), diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP), and paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), when conditions are suitable. The report provided suggestions to prevent contaminated crabs from being placed on the market.
This research project aimed to determine the concentrations and toxin composition of DSP toxins in selected mussel samples at three shellfish production sites (Drovinish in Loch Roag, and Clift Sound and Ronas Voe in Shetland), toxin concentrations were examined over a 6-month period to identify possible temporal trends over discrete sampling periods.
Findings were reported from the monitoring programme for algae toxins in shellfish in the period 2001 to 2002. The programme identified production areas where detected PSP, ASP and DSP toxins were above the permitted level and lead to restrictions being imposed on harvesting areas.
Monitoring Programme for Algal Toxins in Shellfish from Scotland (March 2005)
Following the grounding of the cargo vessel, MV Jambo in 2003, on the west coast of Scotland, a monitoring programme was set up to ensure that concentrations of heavy metals resulting from the grounding does not affect the safety of seafood products available for human consumption. The concentrations of zinc, cadmium, lead and arsenic in scallops and edible crabs were determined.
FSS commissioned research to investigate the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in farmed mussels in Loch Leven. In September 1999, elevated concentrations of PAH in mussels from Loch Leven led the shellfish producers, based on the precautionary principle, to implement a voluntary prohibition on harvesting mussels for human consumption at both the Ballachulish and Kinlochleven shellfish farm sites in Loch Leven. Monitoring of shellfish from these farms for PAHs were carried with reference to shellfish from other farms.
A study to monitor chemical contaminants in three shellfish species- mussels, scallops and oysters- from sites around Scotland was carried out. The concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), trace metals (TM), chlorobiphenyl (CB) and organochlorine pesticide (OCP) were determined in the soft tissues these three species across two sampling periods (March and April 2002 and during August and September 2002).
Measurement of Chemical Contaminants in Shellfish from Scottish Waters (January 2003)
Domoic acid which causes amnestic shellfish poisoning (ASP) can accumulate at harmful levels in shellfish. This study was carried out to quantify levels of domoic acid in king scallops, determine natural variation of the toxin and assess processing practices including HACCP in order to inform recommendations for Scottish Scallop processors. The study helped to determine the appropriate levels of end product testing for king scallops in Scotland within a tiered testing regime.
Measurement of ASP in King Scallops Processed in Scotland (April 2002)
This research examines consumer awareness and attitudes to new breeding technologies (NBTs) in foods. We commissioned JRS to carry out qualitative research with consumers in Scotland.
The research objectives were to explore:
This research aims to build on previous joint survey research carried out by the Food Standards Agency (FSA) and FSS which examines consumer attitudes to precision breeding. It does this by providing further in-depth insights from qualitative research with consumers in Scotland.
New breeding technologies (NBTs) consumer research (October 2023)
This joint project with FSA funded Ipsos to carry out an online survey of 4177 respondents in March 2023 across the UK to examine consumer awareness and understanding of precision breeding. This is in the context of the Genetic Technology (Precision Breeding) Bill in England and Wales.
Consumer perceptions of precision breeding: Executive summary | Food Standards Agency (March 2023)
Additionally, regular consumer tracker surveys to monitor attitudes, knowledge and reported behaviours relating to food are carried out. The surveys target a representative sample of the Scottish population, identifying changes over time. Surveys can focus on either food safety and authenticity, or diet and nutrition. Reports of consumer tracker surveys can be accessed via our science and evidence research page.
