6. Drivers for overconsumption of discretionary foods and drinks
6.1 The appeal and impact on satiety of discretionary foods
6.1.1 The 2007 UK government Foresight report on reducing obesity highlighted how both physiological and psychological prompts can lead to overconsumption of calories. FSS qualitative research investigating how consumers and health professionals understand healthy eating messages found that eating habits are heavily influenced by taste, price and convenience, and foods high in fat and/or sugar are viewed by consumers as being tasty, relatively cheap, readily available, and ready to be eaten. Individuals reported that discretionary foods were overwhelmingly seen as 'appetising', 'delicious', 'appealing', 'attractive', 'tempting' and 'tasty'. Participants also believed that we ‘are programmed to like sugar and fat and considered these to be ‘addictive’ and emotionally comforting, and they reported using them to alleviate stress or boredom, even when not hungry. These foods are often viewed as rewards or treats, which consumers feel they deserve and are entitled to. Data from wave 6 of the 2018 FSS consumer tracking survey found that nearly half (46%) of those with children in their household agreed that ‘It’s OK to reward children with chocolates, sweets and biscuits’.
6.1.2 As part of the FSS research into how consumers and health professionals understand healthy eating messages, participants were provided pictures of discretionary foods and asked how many of these types of foods they thought could be consumed as part of a healthy balanced diet. Most people were surprised at how few could be consumed. Some people suggested that they may reduce their consumption “a bit”, for example, if they were currently consuming 14 “treats” a week, they may try to reduce their intake to 10 or 12 per week.
6.1.3 Discretionary foods have a high energy density (i.e. high calorie content per 100g). Research from Prentice and Jebb (2003) into fast foods, energy density and obesity shows that we tend to have a poor physiological ability to recognise high energy dense foods, with consumption producing a relatively low feeling of satiety. This makes it easy to over consume calories, which can increase the risk of overweight and obesity and associated health harms. Annexe 2 provides more information on energy density.
6.2 Environmental cues
6.2.1 A strategic approach to the complexity and challenges of behaviour change in relation to dietary health from Bestwick et al (2013) shows we are heavily influenced by habits and food cues in the surrounding environment and we have a limited ability to resist temptation. Behavioural science evidence outlined within the FSS Board meeting in December 2016 shows discretionary foods are often purchased on impulse, with little conscious awareness or deliberation by the consumer.
6.3 Large portion sizes of discretionary foods
6.3.1 Proposals for setting the direction of the Scottish diet were presented to the FSS Board in January 2016, highlighting discretionary foods such as chocolate, crisps, sweet biscuits are sold in an array of portion and pack sizes, with many at the top end of the range being unacceptably large in the context of a healthy diet. The 2025 FSS consumer tracking survey wave 19 found that 42% of consumers think that standard portion sizes of items such as chocolate bars, savoury snacks, crisps, sweets, cakes and muffins should be reduced. Similarly, evidence published in 2018 by PHS on public attitudes to reducing overweight and obesity in Scotland found that 57% of people support action to reduce the portion sizes of unhealthy drinks or snacks.
6.3.2 Research from the University of Stirling, commissioned by FSS in 2017, noted that that portion and pack size information is presented inconsistently, which can cause confusion among consumers. Hollands et al (2015) research into portion, package and tableware size shows that larger portions and pack sizes encourage over-consumption, as people consistently consume more when offered larger sizes.
6.3.3 Large portion sizes are of particular concern when eating out of home, with many products like biscuits, ice creams, sorbets and puddings, containing nearly twice the calories of equivalent products bought from retailers into the home, as shown within Public Health England’s 2018 report analysing the first year of the sugar reduction programme. A repeat analysis of the calorie content of sweet discretionary products in the out of home sector in Scotland 2023 showed an average calorie content of 449kcal per portion, which is above the 325kcal UK Government sugar reduction programme maximum calorie recommendation for sweet discretionary products. FSS research into the nutritional content of popular food items sold by independent out of home businesses in Scotland revealed a wide range in portion sizes were available for products such as cheesecake (85-455g), with calorie contents ranging from 339 to 2196kcal per portion.
6.3.4 Research to understand price and placement marketing strategies used within premises and online by out of home businesses in Scotland conducted by Scottish Government in 2023, showed shoppers could increase the portion size of their product at 75 of the 158 out of home premises visited. In some cases, the default size of the available product was medium or large, and the shoppers had to specifically ask for a small.
6.4 Price promotions
6.4.1 Promotions are designed to drive extra purchases, often encouraging consumers to purchase more than they would have otherwise. A 2020 report from Public Health England analysing the role of price promotions shows that they can increase purchases by around 18% compared to expected levels without promotions.
6.4.2 The report also showed that additional purchases in high sugar products as a result of promotions were not offset by reductions in other similar products, resulting in a net increase in overall purchasing of high sugar items. Evidence from the Public Health England 2015 sugar reduction evidence for action report supports this, showing that around 8.7% of the sugar brought into the home is a direct result of additional purchases bought on promotion.
6.4.3 The most recent FSS report on monitoring retail purchase and price promotions in Scotland 2019-2022 shows that all discretionary food and drink categories continue to be purchased on price promotion at higher levels than healthier categories. In 2022, around 28% of discretionary food and drink categories were purchased on price promotion, compared with 20% of total food and drink, 21% of fruit and 16% of vegetables.
6.4.4 This is also apparent within the out of home food sector. The FSS out of home environment in Scotland (2021) report shows confectionery and gum, savoury snacks and regular sugary carbonates to be among the top 10 food and drink categories purchased on promotion. Similarly, based on a sample of 316 mystery shopping visits, the 2023 Scottish Government research to understand price and placement marketing strategies used within premises and online by out of home businesses in Scotland found that the most common products on price promotion at out of home outlets was confectionery (14%), crisps or savoury snacks (12%) and cakes (10%).
6.5 Non- price promotions and marketing of discretionary foods
6.5.1 A systematic review by Whitehead et al (2021) looking at the impact of non-price and in-premise marketing on food and beverage consumption behaviour shows it’s not just price promotions that influence purchasing of discretionary foods – consumer choice can be influenced by multiple other strategies, such as in-premise advertising and product placement.
6.5.2 Evidence presented by the 2018 UK Parliament committee on childhood obesity shows product placement is designed to increase impulsive food and drink purchase. Research from Nakamura et al (2014) into the impact of displaying beverages in end of aisle locations found this to increase the sales volumes of carbonated drinks by 73%. An audit carried out by Thorton et al (2013) found the UK to have the highest aisle length dedicated to snack foods including crisps, chocolate and confectionery compared to 8 other countries.
6.5.3 In a UK study from Wright et at (2015) on food at checkouts in non-food stores, almost one-sixth displayed checkout food, the majority of which was ‘less healthy’ and displayed at child height. Research into marketing strategies used by out of home businesses in Scotland in 2023 showed that snacks that would generally be classed as less healthy were the most common type of product at the checkout, with 69% of the 158 outlets explored using this strategy.
6.5.4 The FSS consumer tracking survey from 2018 showed that 61% of consumers agreed that shops should not be allowed to place high fat, salt and sugar foods next to checkouts. Similarly, evidence published in 2018 by PHS on public attitudes to reducing overweight and obesity in Scotland found that 66% of people were in favour of action to address this.
6.5.5 A study on the impact of food and drink marketing on Scotland’s children and young people by Stirling University in 2015 found that children across Scotland were exposed to large amounts of marketing of discretionary foods. More than 50% of all food and drink marketing seen by 11-18 year olds was for sugary drinks, confectionery and savoury snacks. In addition, more than 80% of the products that young people purchased in response to till displays and prompts were confectionery or sugary drinks.