To support evidence-based regulation, an understanding of the attitudes, behaviours and experiences of Food Business Operators and Local Authorities is essential. To support our activities, we have funded a number of research projects in this area.
Evidence based regulation
Research with Food Business Operators and Local Authorities
To enable risk assessment and management in relation to food safety, an understanding of consumer knowledge, behaviours, preferences and attitudes are essential. We fund a broad range of consumer research to support our activities.
Review of ready-to-eat food products sold over social media in Scotland
Despite general concerns about the increase in online food selling, and the unknowns around the safety of food sold this way, we identified that little research had been published on this issue. In 2024 Food Standards Scotland funded a study to provide an overview of ready-to-eat food products offered for sale on Facebook Marketplace in Scotland.
There are two outputs from the project the report from the contractor which details the data collection approach and findings and a response from FSS to consider the food safety implications of the findings reported by the contractor.
Scottish people’s priorities and preferences for food safety information
We funded a study to understand public preferences for food safety information from FSS. An online survey was used to collect consumer opinions from a representative sample of 2,300 persons in Scotland. Top consumer preferences included information on how to store food safely, how to handle food safely, how to cook safely, types of food risks, and general food safety information
Consumer forums: Perceptions of food safety risks
A study was carried out to ascertain knowledge, perception of risk and level of concern about issues related to food safety (such as, unpasteurised dairy products and rare burgers). This enabled FSS identify if consumers views of a food risk tallies with known risks.
Elderly Food Hygiene Report - May 2014
An increase in food borne illness in people over 60 years prompted a study to investigate food hygiene knowledge and practices in this age group.
Citizens’ Forums – Campylobacter interventions perceptions
This study was carried out to explore the impact of increased consumer awareness in mitigating the risk of Campylobacter infection. Potential interventions for reducing Campylobacter in poultry were discussed and the acceptability and desirability of these interventions to consumers
Survey of consumer practices with respect to coated frozen chicken products
This joint research project with FSA involved Ipsos MORI carrying out an online survey in order to understand how consumers cook and eat frozen chicken products at home.
Food behaviours in the UK student population
This joint research with FSA explores the knowledge, attitudes and behaviours of university students relating to food safety, food security, diet and other food-related topics; and, identify the experiences and challenges of university students living in halls of residence and shared accommodation.
UK Public’s Interests, Needs and Concerns around Food
This qualitative and quantitative research explored UK consumer views and priorities in relation to FSS and FSA’s responsibilities around food hygiene and safety, but also around wider interests the public see critical in shaping their food choices and lives including:
- health and nutrition
- environment and ethics
- price quality and convenience
- consumer versus business power
- potential food futures
The research was carried out by Bright Harbour in partnership with Esposito Research and Strategy and AndGood and published in May 2022.
Interests, needs and concerns around food: the public’s view in Scotland
This report presents key findings from a comprehensive review of public interests in food carried out in Scotland. The research is part of a larger piece of work covering the whole of the UK, commissioned by the Food Standards Agency (FSA) and Food Standards Scotland (FSS). It aimed to provide a detailed ‘snapshot’ of people’s interests, needs and concerns around food and is published separately by FSA.
The research covers the key food interests the public would like to see represented and protected on their behalf - particularly in relation to food hygiene and safety, and diet and nutrition, but also more widely. The majority of the findings emerging from Scotland are broadly similar to those across the rest of the UK.
Food and You 2 Survey: Scotland (Wave 8) Key Findings
This report presents the key findings from the Food and You 2 Wave 8 survey carried out in Scotland. The Food Standards Agency (FSA) has been running the survey in England, Wales and Northern Ireland since 2020. In Wave 8, Food Standards Scotland (FSS) collaborated with the FSA to enable, for the first time, a sample of consumers in Scotland to be included in the survey. Food and You 2 measures consumers’ self-reported knowledge, attitudes and behaviours related to food safety and other food issues amongst adults across the UK. Fieldwork for Food and You 2 Wave 8 was conducted between 12 October 2023 and 8 January 2024. A total of 1,377 adults (aged 16 years or over) from 954 households across Scotland completed the survey.
This report focuses on eating at home and food safety practices, eating out and ordering takeaways, concerns about food, food allergies and intolerances, sustainable diets and meat alternatives and genetic technologies.
Evaluation of the implementation of prepacked for direct sale (PPDS)
This joint research with FSA focuses on legislation that requires foods that are pre-packed for direct sale (PPDS) to clearly display the name of the food and a full ingredients list with the 14 regulated allergens emphasised within the list. The legislation was implemented in October 2021. In Scotland, the research aimed to understand:
- Awareness of the new requirements across FBOs and LA
- Uptake and compliance with the new requirements
- The effect of PPDS legislation
- LA experience of supporting compliance
- Success factors and lessons learned from the implementation of PPD legislation and how this could be applied in the future.
IFF Research were commissioned to conduct this evaluation on behalf of the FSA and FSS, taking a mixed-method approach:
FSS is the competent authority in Scotland required by legislation to implement programmes for monitoring the safety of shellfish (i.e. live bivalve molluscs) from classified harvesting waters. We fund research on marine microbiological and chemical contaminants including biotoxins to support the monitoring program. More details of our research work are outlined below:
Microbiological hazards in shellfish
SARF 013 - Risk factors in shellfish harvesting areas
Bacterial and viral pathogens in shellfish could pose significant health problems to consumers. Because shellfish species are filter feeders, microorganisms may accumulate at higher levels. This study was carried out to identify key pollution sources and conditions contributing to viral and bacterial contamination of cultured shellfish. The project consisted of three key elements – a sanitary survey; 12 month monitoring programme; and a source apportionment study of faecal indicator bacteria.
Marine contaminants and biotoxins
Investigation into the levels of environmental contaminants in Scottish marine and freshwater fin-fish and shellfish
We have funded research to monitor the presence and levels of contaminants and biotoxins that may accumulate in shellfish and marine environments. An investigation into the levels of environmental contaminants like heavy metals, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs) and phthalates in fish and shellfish provided the bases for the estimation of dietary exposure to these hazards. The study also provides information on emerging contaminants to inform our monitoring programme.
Collection and analysis of shellfish flesh from Scottish inshore and offshore harvesting areas for chemical contaminants - FRS project (PAHs, CBs, OCPs and TMs)
A further study investigating the levels of benzopyrene (BP), PAHs, lead, cadmium and mercury, chlorobiphenyls and organochlorine pesticides, concluded that the concentrations of these substances in the samples analysed do not raise health concerns in respect to consumption by the general public.
Pilot study on the incidence of algal toxins (ASP, DSP and PSP toxins) in Scottish Brown Crab (Cancer pagurus)
The incidence and uptake of toxins by crabs was assessed through a pilot study which also mapped areas where crabs are sourced. The findings of the study suggested that Scottish Brown crabs could potentially be a vector for amnestic shellfish poisoning (ASP), diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP), and paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), when conditions are suitable. The report provided suggestions to prevent contaminated crabs from being placed on the market.
LC-MS profiling of DSP toxins in shellfish samples from the 2006 Scottish DSP monitoring programme
This research project aimed to determine the concentrations and toxin composition of DSP toxins in selected mussel samples at three shellfish production sites (Drovinish in Loch Roag, and Clift Sound and Ronas Voe in Shetland), toxin concentrations were examined over a 6-month period to identify possible temporal trends over discrete sampling periods.
Monitoring Programme for Algal Toxins in Shellfish from Scotland (March 2005)
Findings were reported from the monitoring programme for algae toxins in shellfish in the period 2001 to 2002. The programme identified production areas where detected PSP, ASP and DSP toxins were above the permitted level and lead to restrictions being imposed on harvesting areas.
Measurement of Trace Metals in Crustacea and Bivalve Molluscs in Support of the MV Jambo Environmental Monitoring Programme
Following the grounding of the cargo vessel, MV Jambo in 2003, on the west coast of Scotland, a monitoring programme was set up to ensure that concentrations of heavy metals resulting from the grounding does not affect the safety of seafood products available for human consumption. The concentrations of zinc, cadmium, lead and arsenic in scallops and edible crabs were determined.
Continued Monitoring of PAH in Loch Leven
FSS commissioned research to investigate the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in farmed mussels in Loch Leven. In September 1999, elevated concentrations of PAH in mussels from Loch Leven led the shellfish producers, based on the precautionary principle, to implement a voluntary prohibition on harvesting mussels for human consumption at both the Ballachulish and Kinlochleven shellfish farm sites in Loch Leven. Monitoring of shellfish from these farms for PAHs were carried with reference to shellfish from other farms.
Measurement of Chemical Contaminants in Shellfish from Scottish Waters
A study to monitor chemical contaminants in three shellfish species- mussels, scallops and oysters- from sites around Scotland was carried out. The concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), trace metals (TM), chlorobiphenyl (CB) and organochlorine pesticide (OCP) were determined in the soft tissues these three species across two sampling periods (March and April 2002 and during August and September 2002).
Measurement of ASP in King Scallops Processed in Scotland
Domoic acid which causes amnestic shellfish poisoning (ASP) can accumulate at harmful levels in shellfish. This study was carried out to quantify levels of domoic acid in king scallops, determine natural variation of the toxin and assess processing practices including HACCP in order to inform recommendations for Scottish Scallop processors. The study helped to determine the appropriate levels of end product testing for king scallops in Scotland within a tiered testing regime.
Risk assessments of biotoxins and contaminants in shellfish
As part of our activities to support the shellfish monitoring programme, we commission risk assessment of marine biotoxins and contaminants.
A study to examine the statistical model used to inform risk assessment of the Scottish monitoring programme for marine biotoxins in shellfish from classified production areas was carried out. The study also considered alternative statistical models using a larger dataset collected over 15 years and took into account the actual date of sample collection as opposed to aggregating data by month. The study assessed the possibility of refining the model to allow for smooth progression of estimated biotoxin prevalence over time.
- Add 2021 risk assessments
- Exploring improvements to models used in risk assessment of the Scottish monitoring programme for marine biotoxins in shellfish harvested from classified production areas (June 2018)
The Scottish monitoring programme for marine biotoxin was assessed to determine whether the current monitoring frequencies were sufficient. In this study, the risk of non-detection of a toxic event with PSP, ASP and DSP were assessed and the study provided data on the estimated prevalence of toxins responsible for shellfish poisoning a variety of species harvested from classified production areas.
Previous studies to risk assess the shellfish monitoring program have also been reported. One of the studies analysed monitoring data to determine toxin concentrations of ASP, DSP and PSP in mussels, pacific oysters, king scallops, queen scallops, and cockles collected between April 2004 and November 2006. It also assessed the risk of a toxic event going undetected and follows up from a similar study on shellfish samples collected between April 2001 to March 2004.
- Risk assessment of the FSAS inshore shellfish monitoring programme based on historical toxin data from 2004-2006 (March 2008)
- Risk Assessment of Inshores/fish sites- (September 2004)
A risk assessment for practical changes in the Scottish offshore scallop monitoring programme for domoic acid was carried out in response to domoic acid concentrations in scallops from Scotland showing a year on year increase.
Method development to support shellfish monitoring
FSS supports research into developing better methods for detecting and monitoring food hazards. We have funded extensive research into improving the detection of marine biotoxins in shellfish.
Our review of commercially available field testing methods for shellfish end product testing concluded that in general, commercially available field methods can detect ASP, DSP, and PSP toxins at concentrations well below the regulatory limits.
Critical review of the current evidence for the use indicator shellfish species for purposes of biotoxin and chemical monitoring in shellfish production areas
We undertook a critical review of the available evidence base on the feasibility of using a shellfish indicator species for contaminants and biotoxin monitoring in Scotland. The findings suggested that mussels are good candidates for use as indicator species for biotoxin monitoring (with some exceptions which are detailed in the report). However, there was limited evidence to support the use of an indicator species for monitoring chemical contaminants.
Study to investigate the effect of General Anaesthesia on the Paralytic Shellfish Poisioning (PSP) Bioassay
A study was conducted to test a modification to the standard mouse bioassay used to detect PSP. There are ethical issues associated with the mouse bioassay with regards to animal welfare. The study aimed to refine the method to minimise animal suffering by anaesthetising test animals prior to being injected with toxic sample.
Research to support the development of a monitoring programme for new or emerging marine biotoxins in shellfish in UK waters
We constantly monitor for emerging food safety issues. This study critically reviewed and assessed current available evidence, both on emerging shellfish biotoxins and testing regimes in different countries worldwide to support the development of a monitoring programme for emerging marine biotoxins in shellfish in UK waters. The review provided a comprehensive risk assessment on new emerging toxins reported worldwide and identified and prioritised the potential risks for the UK.
Development and assessment of specific probes for the detection and monitoring of toxin-producing phytoplankton species in Scottish waters
Toxin-producing phytoplankton species presents a risk to the safety of shellfish in Scottish waters. This project was carried out with a aim to develop molecular-based techniques for the identification toxin-producing phytoplankton species such as Alexandrium tamarense, Azadinium spinosum and other Azadinium species in Scottish waters.
Treatment and processing options to reduce toxins
Studies have been carried out with the aim of developing processing techniques for removing paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins from naturally contaminated scallops. The effect of washing the edible parts of king scallops to reduce the levels of PSP toxin was assessed in this study.
Distribution of DSP toxins in King Scallops (Pectin maximus) and the effects of current shucking practises on toxin concentrations in edible tissues
This study filled an important evidence gap regarding the effectiveness of shucking practises in reducing the levels of diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxin in king scallops.
New breeding technologies (NBTs) consumer research
This research examines consumer awareness and attitudes to new breeding technologies (NBTs) in foods. We commissioned JRS to carry out qualitative research with consumers in Scotland.
The research objectives were to explore:
- consumers’ views and attitudes to different terminology
- perceived risks and benefits
- the level of regulation that consumers want
This research aims to build on previous joint survey research carried out by the Food Standards Agency (FSA) and FSS which examines consumer attitudes to precision breeding. It does this by providing further in-depth insights from qualitative research with consumers in Scotland.
Consumer perceptions of precision breeding
This joint project with FSA funded Ipsos to carry out an online survey of 4177 respondents in March 2023 across the UK to examine consumer awareness and understanding of precision breeding. This is in the context of the Genetic Technology (Precision Breeding) Bill in England and Wales.
Additionally, regular consumer tracker surveys to monitor attitudes, knowledge and reported behaviours relating to food are carried out. The surveys target a representative sample of the Scottish population, identifying changes over time. Surveys can focus on either food safety and authenticity, or diet and nutrition. Reports of consumer tracker surveys can be accessed via our science and evidence research page.